By Ayman Khaliq, Akhilesh Kumar Mishra, Anuj Niroula, Waqas Nabi Baba, Muhammad Nouman Shaukat and Ahmad RabbaniÂ
- College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food, Nutrition and Health (CFA), United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, 600 036, India
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Kashmir University, Hazratbal J&K, 190006, India
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 100, 95123, Catania, Italy
Received 25 July 2024, Revised 17 November 2024, Accepted 21 November 2024, Available online 23 November 2024, Version of Record 26 November 2024.
Referred to by
Food Bioscience, Volume 63, January 2025, Pages 105633
Ayman Khaliq, Akhilesh Kumar Mishra, Anuj Niroula, Waqas Nabi Baba, Muhammad Nouman Shaukat, Ahmad Rabbani
Abstract
Camels, particularly dromedaries, are vital to arid and semi-arid regions like Northeast Africa and Asia, where they thrive and provide essential nutrition. Camel milk is rich in essential vitamins (A, B, C, E), minerals (iron, zinc, magnesium), and bioactive compounds, making it a valuable dietary source in resource-limited environments. Camel milk contains protective proteins such as lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, and lactoperoxidases, and these proteins generate bioactive peptides upon digestion that exhibit auspicious antidiabetic, anticancer, antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and hypocholesterolemic activities. While, low cholesterol and sugar levels in camel milk, combined with its insulin-like and anti-inflammatory properties, confer the potential therapeutic attributes against some conditions such as diabetes, autism, and autoimmune diseases. These unique properties of camel milk especially camel milk proteins have significant potential in food applications while a few of its industrial applications in food products like cheese, ice cream, milk powders and ice cream have also been discussed. This review is aimed to comprehensively review camel milk by going through its particular composition, nutritional and bioactive profile, associated health benefits, and industrial applications.
Abbreviation
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization |
DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid |
IgG | Immunoglobulin G |
IgA | Immunoglobulin A |
NAGase | N-acetyl-beta-D- glucosamidase |
PGPR | Peptidoglycan recognition proteins |
Th1 | T helper type 1 |
Th2 | T helper type 2 |
IFN-Îł – | Interferon-gamma |
BCL-2 | B-cell lymphoma 2 |
AST | aspartate aminotransferase |
ALT | Alanine transaminase |
HCV | Hepatitis C virus |
HBV | Hepatitis B virus |
HepG2 | hepatoma G2 |
HSV1 | herpes simplex virus type 1 |
PBMC | Primary peripheral Mononuclear Cells |
HeLa | Henrietta Lacks |
NK cells | natural killer cell |
MCF | Michigan Cancer Foundation |
Bcl 2 | B-cell lymphoma 2 |
BAX | Bcl-2-associated X protein |
LC3 | Light Chain |
AHA | Alpha Hydroxy Acid |
DPP | Dipeptidyl peptidase |
STZ | Streptozotocin |
LDL | low density lipoprotein |
BB-12 | Bifidobacterium |
ACE | Angiotensin converting enzyme |
LAB | lactic acid bacteria |
HPLC-MS | liquid chromatography mass Spectrometry |
ASD | autism spectrum disorder |
CARS | Childhood Autism rating scale |
TARC | Thymus and activation regulated chemokine |
ELISA | Enzyme link immunosorbent assay |
IBD | Inflammatory Bowel disease |
CD’s | Crohn’s disease |
MAP | Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis |
DSS | Dextran sulphate sodium |
SCFA’s | Short chain fatty acids |
NF-B | Nuclear factor B |
SARC-CoV | Saevere acute respiratory syndrome chrono virus |
1. Introduction
Zoologically, camels are categorized as Tylopoda and are a member of the family Camelidae, which is divided into two genera: Lama and Camelus (Solari & Baker, 2007). In the arid regions of Northeast African countries such as Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, and Ethiopia, dromedaries comprise 89% of the total camel species (Keskes et al., 2013). The remaining 11% are Bactrian camels, commonly found in Asia’s cold deserts (Keskes et al., 2013). There are 50 distinct breeds of camels across the world, with 27 of them being prevalent in Africa, Pakistan, and Arabic countries (Faye, 2020). FAOCSD (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database) reports a global population of over 38.5 million camels (Faye, 2022). Approximately 80% of the global camel population is located in the Horn of Africa, with the region hosting 60% of the global camel population. Countries like Kenya, Mauritania, Pakistan, Mali, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Niger have a camel population of over a million (Benmeziane â Derradji, 2021).
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), nearly 6 billion people, especially newborns, rely primarily on milk that fulfills most of their nutritional requirements (Eissa, Yagoub, Babiker, & Ahmed, 2011). The world consumes 558,983,380 tonnes of milk annually, with each person consuming 108 kg on average (Soedirman, 2017). Grand View Research (2021) reports that the global market for milk and dairy products is worth US$ 481.8 billion and is projected to reach US$ 640.7 billion by 2027 (Ali et al., 2019). In Africa and Asia, milk contributes 2â5% of the total dietary energy supply, whereas, in Oceania and Europe, this figure ranges between 7 and 9%. Similarly, milk provides 6â8% of the dietary protein supply in these regions, compared to 19% in Europe. Regarding dietary fat supply, milk accounts for 6â7% in Africa and Asia, while in America and Europe, it contributes 12â14% (Benmeziane â Derradji, 2021).
People have been consuming dairy products such as cheese, butter, kefir, and yogurt for many years. Consequently, there has been significant research on the influence of milk and dairy products on human well-being, both as whole products and as specific constituents (Lordan, Tsoupras, Mitra, & Zabetakis, 2018). Various types of animal milk with differing nutrient compositions are available and consumed worldwide. Cows, buffaloes, camels, goats, and sheep are the top five animals that produce milk globally (Lönnerdal, 2014). Depending on the region and availability, milk from yaks, donkeys, camels, reindeer, horses, and moose are also consumed nowadays (Muehlhoff, Bennett, & McMahon, 2013). In addition to having high mineral contents, many of these milk sources were found to have therapeutic advantages (Simpson et al., 2012; Uniacke-Lowe, Huppertz, & Fox, 2010). Camel has become a focus of interest for scientists and breeders due to its exceptional ability to produce significant quantities of milk for extended periods in regions with arid climates and therefore, camel milk is also referred to as the âdesert white goldâ (Jilo & Tegegne, 2016; Pak, Khojimatov, Abdiniyazova, & Magay, 2019). In contrast to other mammals, camels exhibit remarkable adaptability, enabling them to survive and thrive in a harsh climate with high temperatures, drought, and limited (Eissa, Yagoub, Babiker, & Ahmed, 2011).
Lactating camels are typically milked thrice daily and can produce approximately 6Â L of milk during the dry season and 9Â L during the wet season (Ahmad et al., 2012). The quality and quantity of camel milk depend on factors such as the quality of feed and the amount of water consumed daily (Ahmad et al., 2012). Camel milk is rich in vitamins A, B, C, and E, essential for human health, particularly in dry regions (Bakry et al., 2023). It is proven that camel milk has low cholesterol and sugar levels but is rich in minerals such as iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium, copper, phosphorus and sodium. Furthermore, camel milk is recommended as an alternative to cow’s milk for individuals who are intolerant or allergic to the protein present in cow’s milk (Ehlayel & Bener, 2011). Additionally, it has elevated levels of protective proteins, including lysozymes, immunoglobulin, lactoferrins, and lactoperoxidases (Yadav, Kumar, Priyadarshini, & Singh, 2015). Camel milk has been known as a potential therapy for various conditions, including dropsy, leishmaniasis, asthma, jaundice, and hypertension (Asres & Yusuf, 2014). Studies have found that camel milk possesses less beta-casein and beta-lactoglobulin, which may cause fewer allergic reactions in people who are lactose intolerant (Konuspayeva, Faye, & Loiseau, 2009). It also includes protective proteins, with anti-tumor and insulin-like properties, which can cure various diseases such as diarrhoea, diabetes, tuberculosis and autism (Gul, Farooq, Anees, Khan, & Rehan, 2015). In addition, Camel milk has anti-malignant (Korashy, Maayah, Abd-Allah, El-Kadi, & Alhaider, 2012) and antithrombotic properties (Abdel Gader & Alhaider, 2016), making it an excellent source to treat various diseases. Many studies have claimed the role of camel’s milk bioactive compound in curing paratuberculosis, preventing ageing and fighting against autoimmune diseases (Sharma & Singh, 2014). Even though camel milk has many benefits, its consumption is very limited, this is likely because of prejudices among urban dwellers, the perception that camel milk has an unpleasant flavor due to its acidity and saltiness, and the lack of knowledge about its benefits, uses and market value (Al-Juboori, Mohammed, Rashid, Kurian, & El Refaey, 2013).
In recent years, camel milk has been the subject of extensive research due to its potential nutraceutical and medical benefits. Several authors have already reviewed existing literature and discussed the composition, nutritional profile, biofunctional properties, bioactive peptides impact of processing and potential food application of camel milk (Ali et al., 2019;Â Ayoub et al., 2024;Â Ho, Zou, & Bansal, 2022;Â Seifu & Seifu, 2022;Â Solanki & Hati, 2018;Â Swelum et al., 2021;Â Yadav et al., 2015). However, there is lack of such a salient comprehensive review discussing all of these major striking features of camel milk in a single manuscript. Hence the current review is drafted to comprehensively discuss the composition, biofunctional characteristics, therapeutic attributes, and industrial applications of camel milk, along with its two key quality control parameters: prevalent diseases and dietary intake.
2. Chemical composition of camel milk
Typically, camel milk consists of about 3.5% fat, 3.4% protein, 0.78% ash, and 4.4% lactose, while water accounts for 87% of total milk (Jilo & Tegegne, 2016) (Fig. 1). Many therapeutic benefits associated with camel milk are attributed to its chemical composition, particularly to its protein, peptide and fatty acid. Camel milk exhibits a distinctively creamy and opaque white appearance due to the uniform distribution of fats throughout the milk, and carries a gentle aroma with a hint of sweetness and a strong flavor (Wakabayashi, Yamauchi, & Takase, 2006). However, the taste of the milk can vary depending on the type of food the camels eat and the availability or accessibility of drinking water (Yadav et al., 2015). Ethanol stability is widely regarded as a reliable method for assessing the freshness and overall quality of milk. It has been reported that the ethanol stability of camel milk is highly influenced by factors such as pH, salt concentration, and heat treatment. Increasing the salt concentration and pH of camel milk has been shown to enhance its ethanol stability, making this an important consideration for the use of camel milk in various dairy products (Alhaj, Lajnaf, et al., 2022). Camel milk, with a pH level between 6.1 and 6.4 and a density ranging from 1.028 to 1.037Â g/cm3, exhibits lower values in comparison to bovine milk (Jilo & Tegegne, 2016). Furthermore, skimmed camel milk has a high buffering capacity at a pH of 4.8 (Gul et al., 2015). The buffering capacity was measured by quantifying the number of acid or base equivalents needed to induce a one-unit change in the pH of 1Â L of milk (Bai & Zhao, 2015). Several factors contribute to the composition of camel milk, affecting its levels of protein, fat, lactose, and various micronutrients. One significant factor is the genetic variability among camel breeds. Dromedary camels, characterized by a single hump, typically produce milk with higher fat and protein content compared to Bactrian camels, which have two humps. These genetic differences substantially influence the nutrient levels in their milk. Seasonal variations also play a critical role; during dry seasons, limited access to fresh grazing often leads to an increase in fat content as camels rely on stored body fat for nutrition, whereas during the rainy season, with greater access to fresh forage and water, fat content tends to decrease while lactose and other nutrients rise (Alhaj, Altooq, et al., 2022). Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, altitude, and the availability of grazing materials further impact milk composition. Camels in arid regions often produce milk with higher concentrations of solids and minerals, reflecting their adaptation to harsh environments (Konuspayeva et al., 2009). The diet of camels is another crucial determinant, as a nutrient-rich diet results in higher levels of fat and protein, while a restricted diet lowers these components. Additionally, the lactation stage influences milk composition, with higher protein and fat levels in early lactation that decrease over time. Furthermore, the overall health and well-being of camels affect milk quality, as healthier camels with lower stress levels and no infections produce more balanced, nutrient-rich milk (Alhaj, Altooq, et al., 2022).

Fig. 1. Chemical composition of camel milk.
Researchers have also reported that the caloric value and composition of camel milk, particularly its energy-containing macronutrients (protein, fat, and lactose), can vary significantly based on species, geographic region, and season. For instance, Bactrian camels produce milk with higher fat and protein content compared to Dromedary camels, resulting in a higher caloric value. Seasonal variations are also observed, with camel milk showing a higher caloric value in winter than in summer. These differences are likely influenced by the camels’ diet, environmental conditions, and physiological factors (Alhaj, Ahmad, et al., 2024).
2.1. Protein
The protein in camel milk is a diverse collection of amino acids with distinct compositions and properties and has a major role in its immunological and nutritional properties (Gizachew, Teha, & Birhanu, 2014). The protein concentration in camel milk varies from 3.1% to 3.99%, (Hailu, Hansen, Seifu, Eshetu, & Ipsen, 2016). Camel milk proteins consist of casein (CN), whey protein (WP), and immune proteins like Peptidoglycan Recognition Protein (PGRP). Casein (CN) protein constitutes about 53â86% of total milk protein (i.e., 1.78â2.76g/100g), and Whey protein is the second most prevalent protein in camel milk, constituting approximately 20â25% of the total protein content (i.e., around 0.6â0.8% of total milk) (Hailu et al., 2016).
2.1.1. Casein
Camel milk contains four primary types of casein proteins, including αs1-casein, αs2-casein, ÎČ-casein, and Îș-casein in the ratio of 26:4:67:3 (w/w) (Table 1). Among the casein proteins, ÎČ-casein is the most abundant, constituting 65% (5.5â29.0 g/L) of the total casein content. This is followed by αs1-casein at 24% (2.4â10.3 g/L), αs2-casein at 4% (2.4â10.3 g/L), and Îș-casein 3.47% (0.1â2.4 g/L) of the total casein content in camel milk. In distinction the mean ratio of αs1: αs2: ÎČ: Îș-caseins in bovine milk are reported as 38:10:36:12 (w/w) (Lajnaf, Attia, & Ayadi, 2023). In bovine milk, the size of casein micelles is within the range of 100â140 nm, whereas in camel milk, they measure around 260â330 nm, almost double the size of those found in bovine milk (Zicarelli, 2004). The presence of casein, mainly the domination of beta-casein in camel milk is responsible for its distinctive biological features, such as improved digestion and anti-allergic properties (Rahimi et al., 2016).
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